當金牛緩緩爬過辛丑年之際，壬寅年也將迎來滶游海中的水虎。身為研究鯊魚的海洋生物學家，當然要趁這個機會跟大家好好介紹海洋中那些屬'虎'的軟骨魚類。
屬虎的鯊魚當然首推頭號殺手'Tiger' shark（*Galeocerdo cuvier*），中文叫鼬鮫（鼬鯊），是鯊魚攻擊裡面最常出現的種類，身上有老虎般的條狀斑紋，至於為何會稱做'鼬'鮫，不知道是因為牠的肉有股特殊味道，讓人不甚喜歡？抑或是因為'鼬'這個字是由最多的橫條跟直條所構成？仍不得其解。鼬鮫像酒醉的流浪漢，能吃的吃，不能吃的也吃，曾在肚子裡面發現過車牌、交通錐等亂七八糟的東西，漁民還觀察到牠很常吃海鳥，所以用台語稱呼牠為'鳥鯊'。
接著是鼠鯊目（Lamniformes）裡Sand 'tiger' shark家族（Odontaspididae spp.）的成員，有砂錐齒鯊（戟齒砂鮫）、凶猛砂錐齒鯊（Smalltooth sand tiger）、大眼砂錐齒鯊（Bigeye sand tiger）三種，台灣海域有記錄到前兩種。鼠鯊目的鯊魚都是行食卵型胎生的生殖模式，也就是受精卵孵化成小鯊魚還在媽媽肚子裡的時候，母鯊會持續排出卵莢到子宮給這些小鯊魚食用，砂錐齒鯊因而被觀察到有明顯子宮內殘食（長比較快、比較大的鯊魚，會把同一子宮內其他後來孵出的兄弟姊妹們吃掉）的現象。這類鯊魚的牙齒尖長且突出，所以台灣的漁民以台語稱做「齴（giàng）牙仔」。
第三種是大尾'虎'鮫（*Stegostoma fasciatum*），在中國被叫做豹紋鯊。是虎還是豹呢？原來這種鯊魚，小時候身上是老虎條紋，長大卻變成了花豹斑點，相較於凶猛的虎豹，牠的英文名字則是比較溫馴的斑馬（Zebra shark）。很多水族館都會飼養大尾虎鮫，同時被多次記錄到孤雌生殖（Parthenogenesis，雌鯊魚沒有跟雄魚交配便自己產出後代）的情形。
Bullhead sharks（Heterodontiformes spp.），這類鯊魚明明屬牛啊（'Bull'head），怎麼會屬虎？因為分類學上這個目的中文名為「'虎'鯊目」，台灣則叫做異齒鮫目，因為牠們的顎部前段牙齒尖銳，後段牙齒則為寬扁狀，前後大相徑庭，另外牠的外皮則是製作日本料理店裡面磨山葵用的磨泥板上好的材料。
斑鬚鮫（*Orectolobus maculatus*）、日本鬚鮫（*O. japonicus*）、頭鮫（*Cephaloscyllium spp.*）及皺唇鯊（*Triakis scyllium*）。雖然鬚鮫跟後面兩類鯊魚在分類上是完全不同目的物種，但是因為身上的條狀斑紋，所以一些漁民或海產業者會以台語直接稱做'虎'仔鯊，在基隆和平島的海產街偶爾會看到這一類的鯊魚出現。前面那兩種鬚鮫也會被叫做豆腐鯊，跟鯨鯊一樣，都是因為肉的顏色白得像豆腐一樣而得名，不過還未列入保育類。
除了鯊魚之外，魟魚裡面窄尾魟屬（genera Himantura）的兩、三個種，譬如在台灣會看到的豹紋窄尾魟（*H. leoparda*）及花點窄尾魟（*H. uarnak*），中文都被暱稱為豹紋魟，有些漁民則是會叫牠們'虎'皮魟。
最後還有這類大家比較不熟悉的深海「怪物」--Chimera。雖然跟鯊魚、魟魚一樣都屬於軟骨魚類，但是牠們的上頷與頭蓋骨相連，所以屬於全頭亞綱（Holocephali），這類軟骨魚中文叫銀鮫，在宜蘭大溪漁港常會出現的黑線銀鮫（*Chimaera phantasma*）跟箕作氏兔銀鮫（*Hydrolagus mitsukurii*），被叫做白魚'虎'。在台灣長得像但比較大的魚類會被叫做XX舅，譬如灰鯖鮫叫做煙仔鯊，長得很像但體型更大的長臂灰鯖鮫跟大白鯊就叫煙仔鯊舅；如果是某種魚類的天敵，或者是有點像但看起來明顯凶猛很多的就會叫XX虎，譬如很愛吃飛烏（飛魚）的鬼頭刀就叫飛烏虎。白魚虎尤其是大型的個體，價錢不斐，以前學弟做研究採樣要花費很大功夫才能採到，常常魚都還在船上就被預定走了，有機會去大溪可以注意看看。
這些軟骨魚雖然屬'虎'，卻是虎落平陽被犬欺，見到牠們的時候，往往是在漁港、魚市場、海產店、餐桌上，很難想像牠們還在海裡的時候是何等美麗。希望經由我的介紹，大家能夠多認識牠們一點，也許未來有機會能夠在海裡面與之相遇。虎年，就祝大家虎虎生魟吧！

Written by Dr. Huahsun Hsu

2022 is the year of the tiger according to the Chinese zodiac. Therefore, we’d like to introduce some of the sharks and rays that have “tiger” in its name.

Let's start with English. There is the Tiger shark and Sand tiger shark. 

__Tiger sharks__  (*Galeocerdo cuvier*) are named because of their stripes, and they are also known as the garbage can of the ocean. They eat fish, squid, birds, seals, sharks, turtles, and sometimes things that are not edible such as license plates and tires.

__Sand tiger sharks__ (Odontaspididae spp.) are a group of three species.  They live in the sandy shorelines, hence the name. Sand tiger(*Carcharias taurus*) pups eat their siblings while in mom’s uterus: the first embryo in the uterus feeds on its sibling embryos-a phenomenon known as adelphophagy (fraternal cannibalism). 

Next is Mandarin: 
The Chinese character for tiger is 虎 (pronouned hŭ )。

In Taiwan, zebra sharks (S*tegostoma fasciatum*) are called __大尾虎鮫__ (literal translation: Big-tailed tiger shark). However, in China, they are called leopard sharks. Why the discrepancy? Turns out, zebra sharks have stripes when they were born, but their stripes turn into spots as they mature! Zebra sharks have been recorded to give birth to pups without mating, which is called parthenogenesis. 

The order Heterodontiformes. This order is called 虎鯊目, the tiger shark order, in China. Bullhead sharks belong to this order.

In Taiwan, fishermen often give fish with stripes nicknames associated to tigers. 

Wobbegong sharks (*Orectolobus maculatus*) and leopard sharks (*Triakis scyllium*) are often referred to as 虎仔鯊 (tiger sharks) by Taiwanese fishermen. 

Himantura is a genus of stingrays with spots. They are commonly called leopard rays, but some fishermen give them the nickname of 虎皮魟 (tiger skin ray).

Fish that are big or look fierce also are often given nicknames associated with tigers. Chimaera is one of them. Silver Chimaera (*Chimaera phantasma*) is nicknamed 白魚虎 ( white fish tiger) in Taiwan. 

The Japanese word for tiger is トラ(pronouned tora )。 
In Japanese, the family Scyliorhinidae (catsharks) are called the とらざめ科, the tiger shark family. 

What about in your language? 
May you meet many species of “ tigers” this year!


sharks with the word tiger in their names

Tiger sharks

虎虎生魟

Year of the Tiger

海洋大學鯊魚實驗室為砂錐齒鯊增添自１９５５年被發現以來，第九筆的物種紀錄。此紀錄是大眼砂錐齒鯊 (*Odontaspis noronhai*)第一筆在西北太平洋的紀錄：形態學和ＤＮＡ的鑑定，此標本應為大眼砂錐齒鯊，然而牠的牙齒與過去的紀錄並不一致：此標本的牙齒排數比過往的紀錄都來得少，並且幾乎所有的牙齒都在左右兩側有兩個尖突，而過往的紀錄都只有一個，因此推測是新的亞種。

資料來源: 
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5094.1.3
插圖 by [5 Gills Design](https://www.fivegillsdesign.com "5 Gills Design Website")


A new record of the rare Bigeye Sand Tiger shark from the northwestern Pacific has been documented by National Taiwan Ocean University’s Shark Lab. 

The location of its capture, morphology and DNA indicates that the specimen is a bigeye sand tiger shark (*Odontaspis noronhai*).  However, upon close inspection, the dentition of the specimen is different from all other specimens by having two cusplets on at least one side of cusps on most of the teeth (vs. only one cusplet per side), and lower total tooth count (29/29 vs. 34–38/37–46), therefore it is speculated to be a new subspecies.

Source: 
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5094.1.3
illustraion by [5 Gills Design](https://www.fivegillsdesign.com "5 Gills Design Website")

New subspecies of Odontaspis noronhai

這個標本外表和其他大眼砂錐齒鯊一樣，但是海大鯊魚實驗室鑑定之後，發現一些不尋常之處

This specimen looks and has similar DNA to other bigeye sand tiger sharks, however upon close inspection...

大眼砂錐齒鯊的新亞種紀錄

Possible New Subspecies of Bigeye Sand Tiger Shark

海邊有宜人的風景，各式戶外活動，還有許多的觀察野生動物的機會，是許多人出遊的首選。
觀察野生動物的迷人之處在於，海洋生物為了適應生活環境、自我防禦和捕食，演化出多樣的生存方式，包括：體內或體表毒素；銳利的牙齒或硬棘等。雖然這些演化機制不是以攻擊人類為目的，常常還是有遊客因為輕忽或認知不足而不慎受傷。不過不需要過度的擔心，這些所謂的 「危險」生物並不是天性兇猛，多是因為受到刺激，感受到危險而啟動了攻擊的自衛機制，而被人類視為威脅。跟我們一起認識這些可能會導致受傷的生物，觀察牠們的時候給予牠們足夠的空間，並了解各種傷口的處理方法，就可以讓你造訪海邊的經驗更安全開心! 

接觸海洋生物而受傷的方式可粗分為兩種：

一是物理性的傷害，如 __穿刺傷和咬傷__：避免這類傷害的方法很簡單：多數海洋生物不會沒事無聊就採取攻擊的，攻擊通常是為了保護自己、地盤或後代。尊重他們的空間，不要去挑釁就可以大幅減少受傷的機率。
另一為 __中毒__：毒素可以經由接觸或食用進入體內。值得一提的是，毒素在生物死亡後，往往不會消失，所以即使是死骸，也不要觸摸或食用為佳。避免這類傷害的方法是不要觸摸或食用。

除了保持距離之外，適當的穿著(防曬衣，手套，海灘鞋)也可以減低受傷的程度。

了解了大原則之後，讓我們逐一認識這些生物們：

首先介紹的是一般人心目中最危險的生物-__鯊魚__。你可能不知道，全世界共有548種的鯊魚呢! 這當中的三百多種都是小於一米的小型鯊魚。五百多種鯊魚的平均體長，僅127公分，比成年人類的還小呢! 大部分的鯊魚看到人類都避之唯恐不及，僅有13個種類的鯊魚有多次咬人的紀錄。當中包含了：大白鯊(*Carcharodon carcharias*)、公牛鯊(*Carcharhinus leucas*)和鼬鮫(*Galeocerdo cuvier*)。他們因為體型較大，被咬到時的傷害較大。鯊魚並不會主動攻擊人類：2020年全球共記錄了129起人類與鯊魚接觸的事件，其中96起人類被咬傷(57件人類有挑釁行為，39件人類沒有挑釁行為)，傷重死亡的為10件。每一天，全球都有成千上萬的人在從事海洋活動，因此被鯊魚攻擊致死的機率，微乎其微，不必過度擔心。因此如果在海中有幸與鯊魚相遇，只要保持平靜，不要去攻擊挑釁，保持眼神的接觸，就可以擁有安全快樂的鯊魚相遇經驗。甚至如果可以回報目擊的資料給我們，還可以為保育鯊魚盡一份心力呢!

接下來介紹一些被牠們被咬到會很不快樂，所以遇到牠們時，需要特別有禮貌的生物：

比起鯊魚，__板機魨__ (Family Balistidae 鱗魨科)才是潛水員們口耳相傳的「恰北北」魚類。不少人有潛水時被板機魨追殺的經驗。板機魨是少數會築巢的魚類；媽媽保護牠的巢不遺餘力。所以當板機魨重複地怒氣沖沖朝著你直奔而來，又狂奔回牠的巢，或是猛咬你的蛙鞋(幸運的話)，就是你闖入她的地盤了。當務之急當然是盡速離開禁區，切記，往上游是離不開禁區的，要往下貼近底部遠離。板機魨的地盤是從海底的巢向上螺旋式展開。越往上禁區越廣!避免被板機魨咬的方式是不要讓手指接近板機魨的嘴巴。圖中的板機魨為小丑砲彈(*Balistoides conspicillum*)。

另一種被咬了會很悲劇的魚類是 __裸胸鯙__ (Genus Gymnothorax 裸胸鯙屬)，他們是體型最大的鰻魚，可以長到3~4米長。嘴巴裡有許多尖銳的牙齒，被咬了會痛不欲生的原因是鰻魚咬住了以後還會往後拉扯，撕裂傷口。甚至有些種類的裸胸鯙口腔黏膜是有毒性的。好消息是，裸胸鯙沒事不會追殺人類，有的裸胸鯙甚至跟潛水員是好朋友，但牠們的視力不是很好。多數的咬傷發生於養殖在水缸裡的裸胸鯙。避免被咬的方式一樣是不要讓手指接近裸胸鯙的嘴巴(不要用手餵食牠們)。圖中的裸胸鯙為珊礁裸胸鱔(*Gymnothorax prasinus*)。

__海蛇__ (Subfamily Hydrophiinae海蛇亞科) 被驚擾了，是會咬人的。毒液由牙齒釋出進入傷口，還好牠們的毒牙很短，如果有穿防寒衣通常會可以避免受傷。中毒的症狀通常在被咬3-8小時之後發生。有的海蛇毒性足以致命，被咬後盡快離開水裡，纏繞止血帶防止毒血回流心臟，並盡速就醫。圖中的海蛇為闊帶青斑海蛇(*Laticauda semifasciata*)。

另外一種毒性足以致命的海洋生物是 __藍圈章魚__。藍圈章魚屬(Genus Hapalochlaena)共有四個種。全部有劇毒。圖中的藍圈章魚為藍環章魚(*Octopus maculosus*)。

附帶介紹另外兩種有毒的頭足類：__小巧可愛的條紋耳烏賊__(*Sepioloidea lineolata*)，受威脅時會分泌有毒的黏液來保護自己。__火焰花枝__ (*Metasepia pfefferi*)則是肌肉組織具有強烈毒性，千萬不要誤食。

遭海洋動物咬傷的傷口，感染海洋弧菌、金黃色葡萄球菌及鏈球菌等的機率高，建議就醫。

除了被咬傷之外，與海洋生物接觸也很有可能造成穿刺傷：

__魟魚__ (Order Myliobatiformes鱝目)是溫和害羞的魚類，不會主動攻擊潛水員。通常是人類走在海灘時踩到躲在沙裡的魟魚，受到驚嚇的魟魚肌肉緊繃之後毒棘會豎起，下意識地甩尾，尾巴上有倒鉤的毒棘就刺入人體並釋出毒素。避免被魟魚刺傷的方法為避免赤腳走在海水混濁的淺灘。被魟魚刺傷非常疼痛，棘也不易取出，傷口也容易感染，受傷後務必盡速就醫。圖中的魟魚為藍斑條尾魟(*Taeniura lymma*)。

海邊常見的 __海膽__ (Class Echinoidea海膽綱)，渾身佈滿刺。走在海灘或岩岸很容易接觸到而被刺傷。有些海膽的刺很脆，容易碎裂，因此刺入身體後不容易取出。避免被海膽刺傷的方法是：走在浪區或是海草海藻密集的區域，要穿著套鞋或是膠鞋，並在夜遊或是夜潛的時候格外小心（牠們多是夜行性）。圖中的海膽為魔鬼海膽(*Diadema setosum*)。

少數的海膽是有毒的，而最毒的海膽，就是最漂亮的 __喇叭毒棘海膽__(*Toxopneustes pileolus*)。顧名思義，這海膽身體表面滿是喇叭形狀的叉棘。此海膽有劇毒，碰觸後可造成暈眩、嚴重的疼痛和肌肉麻痺和呼吸困難，應儘速就醫。 

另外一種全身佈滿刺的生物是 __棘冠海星__(*Acanthaster planci*)。大部分的海星都很溫馴，但是棘冠海星完全不是這麼一回事。牠個頭大，可長到70公分，和長出21隻觸手，以吃珊瑚礁維生。一隻成年棘冠海星一天可以吃掉478 cm2 面積的珊瑚，號稱珊瑚殺手。許多潛水人視牠們為害蟲，見一隻殺一隻，殊不知某些地區他們的族群異常增生，是因為人類過度捕食他們的天敵----大法螺。不過棘冠海星也不是好惹的，牠們的身体佈滿了粗短密集並含有神經毒素的棘刺。毒性造成的不適症狀通常會在30分鐘到三小時內消失，但是也有人類有被刺以後13小時內死亡的案例。

__剛毛蟲__ (Order Phyllodocida葉鬚蟲目)也是全身佈滿刺的生物。在海邊的石頭或珊瑚上常可發現牠們的蹤跡，牠們的身體兩側佈滿成簇的剛毛，被刺傷會造成腫脹，灼熱及疼痛。圖中的剛毛蟲為扁猶帝蟲(*Eurythoe complanata*)。

__河魨__ 魚種包括二齒魨科（Diodontidae）、三齒魨科（Triodontidae）、四齒魨科（Tetraodontidae）以及箱魨科（Ostraciidae）。其中二齒魨科跟四齒魨科的河魨受到刺激會吞食空氣或水，把身體膨脹成一顆佈滿刺的氣球來嚇退敵人，那一根一根的刺，其實是特化的鱗片呢!其中四齒魨科體內含有河魨毒素，「山海經」裡提到會毒死人的肺魚（河魨），指的應該就是四齒魨科。河魨的種類眾多，辨別不易，且河魨毒經加熱後仍無法去除，避免中毒的方法是不要食用不認識的魚種。圖中的河魨為二齒魨科（Diodontidae）的六斑二齒魨(*Diodon holocanthus*)。

台灣漁民口中的毒魚排行榜「一魟。二虎。三沙毛。四斑午。五象耳。六倒吊」：

一魟指的是魟魚。

二虎泛指 __獅子魚__(Genus Pterois蓑鮋屬)、__石狗公__(Genus Scorpaenopsis擬鮋屬)和 __石頭魚__ (Genus Synanceia毒鮋屬)。這些魚的鰭硬棘是有毒腺的。
圖中的獅子魚為斑馬短鰭簑鮋(*Dendrochirus zebra*)，圖中的石狗公為斑鰭鮋(*Scorpaena neglecta*)，圖中的石頭魚為玫瑰毒鮋(*Synanceia verrucosa*)。

三沙毛指的是 __鰻鯰__。「線紋鰻鯰」(*Plotosus lineatus*)，是生活於珊瑚礁區的鯰魚，胸鰭、背鰭的第 1 根硬棘具有毒腺，分泌神經毒與溶血性毒，務必立即就醫。

四斑午指的是 __花身雞魚__。鯻科的「花身鯻/條紋鯻」(*Terapon jarbua*)，雖然沒有毒性，鰓蓋外緣有尖刺，徒手碰觸有被刺傷的可能。

五象耳指的是 __臭肚魚__(Genus Siganus臭肚魚屬)。臭肚魚的腹、胸、臀鰭有刺，鰭棘有會分泌毒液的側溝，被刺到會產生劇痛。 圖中的臭肚魚為褐臭肚魚(*Siganus fuscescens*)。

六倒吊指的是 __粗皮鯛__。刺尾鯛科(Family Acanthuridae)的魚類，尾柄上有非常鋒利且大片的硬棘，早期多被用來當作手術刀，所以牠們英文名是 Surgeon Fish 「外科醫生」，刺尾鯛雖無毒性，徒手碰觸容易被劃出皮開肉綻的傷口，千萬不要以身試刃。圖中的刺尾鯛為擬刺尾鯛/藍倒吊(*Paracanthurus hepatus*)。

__芋螺__ (Conus屬)是岩礁上常見的貝類，有著漂亮的外殼，常常被撿拾。芋螺的捕食器官特化成魚叉狀的「齒舌」，不但倒鉤充滿了毒液，且會在受到驚擾的時候快速射出，應避免徒手採集做觀察。圖中的芋螺為宮廷芋螺(*Conus textile*)。

__水母、水螅、海葵、珊瑚__ 屬於無脊椎動物的刺絲胞動物門，共同的特徵是觸手上的刺絲細胞。刺細胞內部充滿毒液，毒性強度不一，且即使脫離主體仍有發射刺胞的能力。牠們捕食的方式是利用觸手或體表的刺絲胞射出毒素麻痺獵物。海洋刺毒當中，以水母(水母亞門Subphylum Medusozoa)刺傷事件最常見。水母的觸手上，佈滿了有毒的刺細胞。特別一提的是：團冠水母(*Stephanoscyphus racemosum*)是水螅體時期最毒。
圖中的水母為箱型水母(*Carybdea brevipedalia*)。

__海葵__ 的觸手在接觸時會釋出刺胞液，大多數的魚都會避免碰觸海葵有毒的觸手。武裝海葵(Dofleinia armata)一般出現在沙底上，觸手的刺絲胞毒性強烈且數量多。圖中的另一株海葵為千手佛海葵(*Cerianthus membranaceus*)。

__僧帽水母__ (*Physalia physalis*)看起來像水母，其實牠不是水母，而是由四種水螅組成的群落。觸鬚上含有劇毒，每年夏天都會在台灣近海海域出現。遭螫傷應立即就醫。 

__翼簑海蛞蝓__ (Superfamily Aeolidioidea)自己沒有毒素，但是喜歡吃水母，水螅和海葵。吃下了些有刺細胞的食物之後，會把獵物的刺絲胞收集在自己的手指狀露鰓（cerata）末端處的特別囊袋（cnidosacs），遇到危險時，當武器使用。千萬不要看牠們小巧可愛就用手去抓。圖中的海蛞蝓為大西洋海神海蛞蝓(*Glaucus atlanticus*)。

__水螅__ (Genus Aglaophenia羽螅屬)和 __火珊瑚__ (Genus Millepora千孔珊瑚屬)常被誤認為無害的海藻，碰觸後皮膚會產生不適反映，所幸毒性不強。

最後來介紹的是 __螳螂蝦__ (Genus Odontodactylus)，螳螂蝦體型小又色彩繽紛，有著可愛動物的特徵，卻是海裡數一數二的拳擊王。螳螂蝦出拳的速度在空氣裡為每秒26米，在水中為每秒5米，拳擊的力道高達1501N。螳螂蝦利用擊碎貝殼來捕食。此外，螳螂蝦的尾部有毒刺，可造成螫傷，被漁民視為大敵。圖中的螳螂蝦為蟬形齒指蝦蛄/雀尾螳螂蝦(*Cerianthus membranaceus*)。

__資料來源:__

__鯊魚:__
[https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/blog/quick-guide-to-the-2020-isaf-annual-report/](https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/blog/quick-guide-to-the-2020-isaf-annual-report/ "shark")

__板機魨:__
[https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(90)71315-0/pdf](https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(90)71315-0/pdf "trigger")

__海蛇:__
[https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(61)92483-7](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(61)92483-7 "sea snake")

__藍圈章魚:__
[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-009-9223-8](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-009-9223-8 "octopus")

__咬傷:__
[https://dan.org/safety-prevention/diver-safety/divers-blog/well-this-bites-prevention-treatment-of-marine-bites/](https://dan.org/safety-prevention/diver-safety/divers-blog/well-this-bites-prevention-treatment-of-marine-bites/ "bite")

__河魨:__
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tetraodontidae](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tetraodontidae "puffer")

__棘冠海星:__
[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24491916/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24491916/ "sea star")

__水母:__
[https://stjohn.org.au/assets/uploads/fact%20sheets/english/Fact%20sheets_bites%20and%20stings.pdf](https://stjohn.org.au/assets/uploads/fact%20sheets/english/Fact%20sheets_bites%20and%20stings.pdf "jellyfish")

__海蛞蝓:__
[https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-sea-slugs-steal-defenses-their-prey](https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-sea-slugs-steal-defenses-their-prey)

__火珊瑚:__
[https://www.emedicinehealth.com/wilderness_fire_coral_cuts/article_em.htm](https://www.emedicinehealth.com/wilderness_fire_coral_cuts/article_em.htm "fire coral")

__水螅:__
[https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/marine-envenomations-jellyfish-hydroid-stings/](https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/marine-envenomations-jellyfish-hydroid-stings/ "hydroids")

__螳螂蝦:__
[https://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2021/08/robot-mimics-powerful-punch-mantis-shrimp](https://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2021/08/robot-mimics-powerful-punch-mantis-shrimp "mantis shrimp 1")
[https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/208/19/3655/15838/Extreme-impact-and-cavitation-forces-of-a](https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/208/19/3655/15838/Extreme-impact-and-cavitation-forces-of-a "mantis shrimp 2")

__穿刺傷:__
[https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sea-creature-stings](https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sea-creature-stings "stings")

__傷口的處理方式可以免費下載DAN的 “危險的海洋生物” (英文):__
[https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resource/dive-medical-reference-books/hazardous-marine-life/
](https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resource/dive-medical-reference-books/hazardous-marine-life/ "free download")
或是聯絡我們。

Breathtaking scenery, various outdoor and water sports, and the opportunity to encounter wildlife attracts a lot of people to visit the beach every summer. 

Sealives are fascinating to observe because they have evolved in all these different ways to adapt to different environments, defend from predators, and hunt for prey. Adaptations include poisons and venoms, sharp teeth and stings etc. Though not intended to harm humans, one might get hurt during an encounter if not aware. Hence the title “Dangerous”. We call them dangerous because the defence mechanisms of these species are powerful enough to inflict injuries on humans. Not because they are on a mission to hurt us. So don’t let this stop you from exploring the ocean, just a little bit of knowledge can help you avoid unpleasant injuries and experience nature more safely. 

Close encounters with sealife can inflict two types of injuries: One type is physical bites, cuts, and bruises. The other type is chemical, where venoms or poisons get on or into human bodies. The simplest way to avoid injuries is to give sealives their space and not provoke them and to wear protective gear like rash guards and gloves to put a barrier between you and venomous substances.

Now that we’ve got the general idea, let’s take a closer look at the individual species and learn what is dangerous about each individual, how to avoid getting hurt, and what to do in each scenario. 

__Sharks:__
Since most people think sharks are the most dangerous animal in the sea, let’s talk about them first and set the record straight:  

There are over 500 species of sharks in the world, and more than 300 of them are under 3 foot long. The average length of all sharks is 4 ft. Smaller than an average adult. Therefore most sharks steer away from humans when they see us.  Only 13 species of sharks are known to bite humans: Shark species that may bite include the Great White Shark (*Carcharodon carcharias*), Tiger shark (*Galeocerdo cuvier*) and Bull shark (*Carcharhinus leucas*). However, they happen rarely: there are on average 10 global cases of shark attack fatality annually.
On the contrary, shark encounters are often on the bucket list for many divers — and can be done safely: Stay calm, move slowly, and never harass a shark. 

Other animals that bites:

__Triggerfish:__ 
Although triggerfish (Family Balistidae) have small mouths, their powerful jaws can inflict a very painful bite. A nesting female triggerfish will behave aggressively when they feel threatened. When you see an angry triggerfish frantically chasing you or charging at your fins, you probably have gotten too close to her nest. Swim away calmly and stay close to the bottom while doing so, because a triggerfish’s territory expands upwards. 
The trigger fish in the picture is a clown triggerfish (*Balistoides conspicillum*).

__Moray Eels:__ 
Moray eels are the largest eel species. They can grow up to 3-4 meters long. Eels have a mouthful of fangs, and their bites can be incredibly painful because of the “pull back pattern”. Moray eels also have venom in their mouths, temporary paralysis of the bitten area can occur.  If not cared for quickly and properly, these bites can easily become infected. Treatment: Clean the injured area with freshwater, attend the wounds, and pain control. In case of severe bites, seek medical attention immediately.
The moray eel in the picture is a Green Moray Eel (*Gymnothorax prasinus*).

__Sea Snakes:__
Sea snake (Subfamily Hydrophiinae) bites are rare, and most sea snakes’ fangs are not long enough to penetrate through a wetsuit. However, we want to mention it because their bites are highly venomous and can be a life-threatening medical emergency, and requires immediate medical care. The death rate for sea snake bites is 3%. Immediate treatment is to clean the wound with soap and freshwater(if available). Apply pressure bandage to the whole extremity involved in the bite to slow down the venom traveling to the heart.Try not to move the extremity involved if possible, and seek medical attention.
The sea snake in the picture is a Banded Sea Snake (*Laticauda semifasciata*).

__Blue-ringed octopus:__ 
All octopuses and cuttlefish, and some squids are venomous.
The blue-ringed octopuses (genus Hapalochlaena) are among the most venomous animals in all of the world's oceans. If bitten, call emergency services immediately. Lie down or stay as still as Apply an elastic bandage to the bitten area. Bandage the entire limb as tightly as possible and prepare to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if needed.
The octopus in the picture is a Blue-ringed octopus (*Octopus maculosus*).

The following 2 cephalopods don’t have venomous bites, but are also venomous:
__Striped pajama squids__ (*Sepioloidea lineolata*) excrete toxic slime when threatened to protect themselves. 
__Flamboyant cuttlefish__ (*Metasepia pfefferi*) is not only venomus but also the only cuttlefish to have deadly poisonous flesh.

The best defense from being bitten is to stay aware of your surroundings and ensure animals have their space. Never approach and never touch. Also, be careful where you put your hands. Gloves, and wetsuits can also offer you some protection.

General rules to treat a marine bite: Rinse wounds with clean water, control bleeding, seek medical treatment. 
All bites have a high potential for infection and should be evaluated by a doctor. 

Now, let’s talk about stings: 

__Stingrays:__
Stingrays are shy and peaceful. They do not represent a threat unless startled or threatened.. Most injuries occur in shallow murky waters when people accidentally step on them. Stingrays’ defense mechanism consists of a serrated barb at the end of its tail with venom glands located at the base of the barb. To prevent getting stung, be more mindful when walking in the sand. Avoid walking barefoot in shallow or murky waters. Immediate treatment is to clean the wound with freshwater, and control the bleeding. Seek medical attention immediately. If that is not possible, soaking the wound in hot water (upper limit of 113°F/45°C) for 30 to 90 minutes can alleviate the pain.
The stingray in the picture is a Bluespotted ribbontail ray (*Taeniura lymma*).

__Sea Urchins:__
Sea urchins are abundantly found on shallow rocky marine coastlines. The primary hazard associated with sea urchins is contact with their spines.The spines can penetrate boots and wetsuits, puncture the skin and break off. They are also hollow and fragile, making extraction of broken spines from the skin difficult.  Very few species of sea urchins such as the Flower sea urchin (Toxopneustes pileolus) contain venom. Hot water immersion may help denature superficial toxins. Immediate treatment is to remove any superficial spines with hands or tweezers. Spines embedded deeper should be handled by medical professionals. Wash the area thoroughly and gently. Apply antiseptic or antibiotic but do not close the wound with tape or glue. Medical evaluation is highly recommended. The sea urchin in the picture is a Black Sea Urchin (Black Sea Urchin).

__Crown-of-thorns sea stars:__
Crown-of-thorns sea stars get their name from looking like a large crown made of thorns. The sharp, thorn-like spines can easily pierce through skin and release potent venom. Treat sting by soaking the wound in hot water, remove stings, and seek medical attention.

__Bristle Worms:__
Bristle worms (Order Phyllodocida) can be found on rocky beaches. Although not aggressive, they may bite when handled, and the bristles or spines can penetrate the skin when touched.The spines penetrate the skin like cactus spines and can be difficult to remove. Treatment: Remove bristles with adhesive tape or tweezers. Rinse wound with 5% acetic acid (Vinegar) or 70% isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol). If there are signs of infection, consult a healthcare professional.
The bristle worm in the picture is an Orange Fireworm (*Eurythoe complanata*)

__Pufferfish and Porcupine fish:__
Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) and porcupine fish (Diodontidae） belongs to Family Diodontidae. They will puff up and erect the stings when threatened. Pufferfish are also poisonous, containing tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin, in the ovaries, liver, intestines, and skin of the fish. Poisoning occurs from eating pufferfish meat.  
The puffer in the picture is A Long-spine porcupinefish ( *Diodon holocanthus*).

__Fish with venomous stings__ include: __lionfish__ (Genus Pterois), __scorpion fish__ (Genus Scorpaenopsis), __striped eel catfish__ (*Plotosus lineatus*), and __basket fish__ (Genus Siganus). Treatment is to clean the wound in freshwater, stop bleeding, and soak the wound in hot water (upper limit of 113°F/45°C) for 30 to 90 minutes. 
The lion fish in the picture is a Zebra Lionfish (*Dendrochirus zebra*), the scorpeon fish in the picture is *Scorpaena neglecta*, the basket fish in the picture is a Rabbitfish (*Siganus fuscescens*).

__Surgeonfish:__
Surgeonfish (Family Acanthuridae) has spines near the tail that can inflict cuts or lacerations. The surgeonfish in the picture is a palette surgeonfish (*Paracanthurus hepatus*).
__Three-striped tiger fish__ (*Terapon jarbua*) has sharp spines on its gill covers, which can wound a careless handler.

__Cone snails__ (Genus Conus) have conical shells with beautiful color patterns. People often pick them up because they are beautiful. Cone snails possess a harpoon-like tooth capable of injecting a potent neurotoxin that can be dangerous to humans therefore is best not to touch them. If bitten, clean the wound in freshwater, apply the pressure immobilization technique and immediately seek medical attention.
The cone snail in the picture is a Textile Cone Snail (Conus textile).

Some of the most beautiful and seemingly harmless marine invertebrates are among the most hazardous.Snorkelers and divers may unintentionally come into contact with free-swimming jellyfish, hydrozoans or touch hydroids and fire coral. They are armed with stinging cells generally known as nematocysts. 

__Jellyfish:__
For jellyfish stings, immediately flood the entire stung area with lots of vinegar for at least 30 seconds. DO NOT use fresh water. If pain relief is required, apply a cold pack only after vinegar
has been applied. Urgently seek medical aid at a hospital if symptoms are severe.
The jellyfish in the picture is a box jellyfish (*Carybdea brevipedalia*).

__Sea slugs:__
The Blue Dragon Nudibranch and other Aeolid Sea Slugs eat jellyfish and collect it’s venom to store in their own skin and release the venom when they are in danger.
The sea slug in the picture is a Blue Dragon Nudibranch	(*Glaucus atlanticus*).

__Portuguese man-of-war:__
Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis) is characterized by blue gas-filled bladders and long tentacles that drift on the surface of the ocean. Though it looks like a jellyfish, it is hydrozoans and is more closely related to fire coral. It is actually a colony composed of up to four different types of polyps. If stung, avoid rubbing the area. Remove the tentacles with tools. Once the tentacles and any remnants have been removed, flush the area with seawater (NEVER use freshwater!). Immerse the affected area in hot water (upper limit of 113°F/45°C) for 30 to 90 minutes. Immediately seek medical evaluation. 
The fish that lives in it is a Man-of-war fish (*Nomeus gronovii*).

__Fire Corals and Hydroids:__
Fire coral (Genus Millepora) looks like coral, it is a member of the class Hydrozoa and more closely related to jellyfish and other stinging anemones. Hydroids (Genus Aglaophenia) look like tiny ferns or feathers. Fire coral and hydroid stings are irritating but not lethal. Use seawater to rinse off the stings and apply rubbing alcohol or ice for pain relief. 

__Sea Anemones:__
Sea Anemone Stings release a poisonous chemical into the human skin through their spine, which can affect the human body.Some sea Anemones to look out for are Armed Anemone	(*Dofleinia armata*), and Tube-Dwelling Anemone	(*Cerianthus membranaceus*). Treatment consists of washing the affected areas with soap and water followed by a vigorous rinse.

__Mantis shrimp:__
Mantis shrimp pack the strongest punch of any creature in the animal kingdom, with peak impact forces up to 1501 N. The peacock mantis shrimp also has the world's fastest feeding strike of any animal.  They also have sharp spines that stab. Fishermen consider the mantis shrimp dangerous and avoid direct contact with them. There are frequent reports of human injuries caused by these crustaceans. They are not dangerous as long as you don’t touch them. 
The mantis shrimp in the picture is a Peacock Mantis Shrimp (*Odontodactylus scyllarus*).

__Sources Cited__

__Shark:__
[https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/blog/quick-guide-to-the-2020-isaf-annual-report/](https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/blog/quick-guide-to-the-2020-isaf-annual-report/ "sharks")

__Trigger Fish:__
[https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(90)71315-0/pdf
](https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(90)71315-0/pdf "trigger fish")

__Sea Snake__
[https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(61)92483-7
](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(61)92483-7 "sea snake")

__Blue-Ringed Octopus:__
[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-009-9223-8](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-009-9223-8 "octopus")

__Sea creature bites:__
[https://dan.org/safety-prevention/diver-safety/divers-blog/well-this-bites-prevention-treatment-of-marine-bites/
](https://dan.org/safety-prevention/diver-safety/divers-blog/well-this-bites-prevention-treatment-of-marine-bites/ "bites")

__Pufferfish:__
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tetraodontidae
](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tetraodontidae "puffer")

__Crown-of-thorn Sea Star:__
[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24491916/
](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24491916/ "sea star")

__Jellyfish:__
[https://stjohn.org.au/assets/uploads/fact%20sheets/english/Fact%20sheets_bites%20and%20stings.pdf](https://stjohn.org.au/assets/uploads/fact%20sheets/english/Fact%20sheets_bites%20and%20stings.pdf "jellyfish")

__Sea Slug:__
[https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-sea-slugs-steal-defenses-their-prey](https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-sea-slugs-steal-defenses-their-prey)

__Fire Coral:__
[https://www.emedicinehealth.com/wilderness_fire_coral_cuts/article_em.htm](https://www.emedicinehealth.com/wilderness_fire_coral_cuts/article_em.htm "fire coral")

__Hydroid:__
[https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/marine-envenomations-jellyfish-hydroid-stings/](https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/marine-envenomations-jellyfish-hydroid-stings/ "hydroids")

__Mantis shrimp:__
[https://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2021/08/robot-mimics-powerful-punch-mantis-shrimp](https://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2021/08/robot-mimics-powerful-punch-mantis-shrimp "mantis shrimp 1")

[https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/208/19/3655/15838/Extreme-impact-and-cavitation-forces-of-a](https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/208/19/3655/15838/Extreme-impact-and-cavitation-forces-of-a "mantis shrimp 2")

__Sea creature stings:__
[https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sea-creature-stings
](https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sea-creature-stings "sea-creature-stings")

__Link to download DAN’s dive medical reference book “Hazardous Marine Life”:__
[https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resource/dive-medical-reference-books/hazardous-marine-life/](https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resource/dive-medical-reference-books/hazardous-marine-life/ "reference book")


Dangerous Sealife

有可能會導致人類受傷的一些海洋生物的介紹

Sea lives that potentially can be hazardous

危險的海洋生物

國際自然保育聯盟(IUCN)鯊魚專家群針對31種表層鯊魚及魟魚以測量豐量指數的__生命地球指數__(Living Planet Index)及量滅絕指數的__紅色名錄指數__(Red List Index)兩項指標，進行鯊魚魟魚的資源評估。研究結果顯示:表層鯊魚及魟物種減少71%，四分之三的指標性物種有滅絕風險。

研究將鯊魚魟魚的減少，歸因於過度捕撈:過去的半個世紀裡，漁獲壓力增加了18倍。研究亦發現，越來越多的鯊魚魟魚物種的捕撈超越了能夠永續發展的程度。
嚴格執行熱區禁捕，科學性預警式漁獲量管制以及嚴格執行，改善漁法減少混獲，改進鯊魚混獲放生的技巧，提高脫勾後的生存利，都是避免資源崩潰的方法，研究團隊未來會再針對其他底棲性鯊魚及魟魚進行評估，盼達成資源及生態系永續目標。

[出處:](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9 "Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays") 
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9

IUCN shark specialist team used the __Living Planet Index__ (a measure of changes in abundance) and the __Red List Index__ (a measure of extinction risk) to research 31 species of pelagic sharks and rays. The team found that, since 1970, the global abundance of oceanic sharks and rays has declined by 71%. The main cause is an 18-fold increase in relative fishing pressure, ¾ of the species studied in the research are threatened with extinction. 

The study attributes these declines to overfishing. The increase in relative fishing pressure is 18-times compared to half a century ago. The study also found that there is an increase in the proportion of sharks that are being fished beyond sustainable levels. 

To begin the recovery of oceanic shark and ray populations, banning fishing fleets from hotspots of oceanic sharks and rays is necessary. Strict measures to prohibit landings of these species and to minimize their bycatch in other fisheries are needed immediately and must be coupled with strict enforcement.
Other solutions include modifying fishing gear and improving how sharks and rays are released after capture, to give them a better chance of survival.

[Source:](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9 "Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays") 
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9


Living planet index-CHN

Living planet index-ENG

過去的半個世紀 (1970-2020)，七成的大洋性鯊魚從地球消失了。

In just half a century (1970 - 2020) , the abundance of oceanic sharks globally declined by 71.1%.

鯊魚魟魚正在迅速消失中

Sharks and Rays are Declining Fast

海洋表面200至1000公尺的區域，稱為「中水層浮游區」 (mesopelagic zone)，或「__暮光區__ 」(twilight zone)，是介於「光合作用區」(epipelagic zone)以及「半深海區」(bathypelagic zone)的交界區。

接近無光的暮光區裡有很豐富的魚群，當較淺的水域捕獲不到食物時，鯊魚和其他大型魚類便會到這裡攝食。

不同的鯊魚在暮光區待的時間也不同。水鯊最久待一小時。鯨鯊可以待到四小時。象鮫則可以在暮光區待上四個月! 

鯊魚也有可能是因為其他原因進入暮光區。以鯨鯊為例，他們到暮光區不僅是餵食，也是為了降低體溫，擺脫寄生蟲，保存體力，甚至重新校正體內導航系統。

__出處:__
https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/shark-week-2021-sharks-and-the-oceans-twilight-zone/


The __twilight zone__, also called the Mesopelagic zone, begins at the depth where only 1% of incident light reaches (200 m/ 645 feet) and ends where there is no light (1000m/3280 feet). It is home to some of the largest fish biomass on Earth, making it a unique feeding ground for the ocean’s largest predators.  Many shark species venture from surface waters to the deep ocean between 200 and 1000 meters (656 to 3280 feet) and experts believe the main purpose is to hunt for prey when food is scarce in surface waters.

Different shark species spend varying lengths of time in the twilight zone. Blue sharks spend up to an hour hunting for a meal; whale sharks can spend a few hours; and basking sharks take it to the extreme, spending up to four months feasting on twilight zone creatures before reemerging to the sunlit surface waters.

There could be other reasons for sharks to visit the twilight zone.  For example,  besides feeding,  whale sharks visit the twilight zone to cool down, remove parasites, save energy, or even to calibrate their internal navigation.

__Source:__
https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/shark-week-2021-sharks-and-the-oceans-twilight-zone/


暮光區的鯊魚

Twilight zone sharks

鯊魚為什麼去幾乎無光的暮光區?牠們去那裏做甚麼?

Why do sharks go to the almost lightless twilight zone and how long do they stay there for?

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